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KARAHANLILAR ( 840 - 1212 )

Foundation and Development of Karahanlilar State

The European orientalists have attributed the term of Karahanlilar to the first Muslim Turkish dynasty that established dominion in the eastern and western Turkestan due to the frequent usage of the word -kara (black)-"powerful" in their titles. Another title attributed to this dynasty in the scientific resources was the term of ilek (ilig)-khans due to a characteristic title that they used. Furthermore, this dynasty was called with the names of "al-Hakaniye, el-Haniye and al-Afrasiyab" within the contemporary Islam resources. There are seven different suppositions about their origins. O. Pritsak that was the principal authority on the history of Karahanlilar State relates this dynasty to the Karluk dynasty that was a branch of A-shi-na dynasty.

Pursuant to the abolition of the Uighur State by Khirghiz people in 840, Karluk Prince declared himself as the legal successor of the ruler of steppes and founded the Karahanlilar State. This state was divided into two sections under the administration of two khans in accordance with the Altay system that divided the country and nation into two sections. The ruler of the eastern section that born the title of Arslan Kara Khan was the great khan and the ruler of all Karahanli people and he was settled in Kara-Ordu. The ruler of the western section that born the title of Bugra Kara Khan was firstly settled in Taraz as the central khan. Apart from these two khans, there were four sub-khans and six deputies of the ruler within the state administration staff. The rulers within this class of government were the members of the same dynasty and they ascended relatively step by step.

According to another opinion about this issue, it has been alleged that the Karahanlilar State was administered on the basis of "dual organisation" that was suitable for the Turkish state system. Accordingly, the state was divided into two sections as the east and the west. The great khan that was the ruler of the eastern section was also the ruler of all Karahanlilar people. The western section was administered by another member of the same dynasty providing that this member had to recognise the superior dominion of the great khan. The miscellaneous provinces called with the term of "il" in both sections of the state were administered by the crown princes pertaining to the same dynasty or the military governors. The state was divided into two Karahanli States as the east and the west states in the years of 1041-1042. Pursuant to this division, the tradition of the dual organisation continued for a while in both states.

Satuk Bugra Khan

Bilge Kul Kadir Khan that was the first khan determined in Karahanlilar State had struggled with Samani State. He had two sons named as Arslan Khan and Kadir Khan. Arslan Khan governed the state from Balasagun in his capacity as the great khan and Kadir Khan Ogulcak governed the state from Taraz in his capacity as the central-khan. Ismail b. Ahmet (892-894) from Samani State besieged the city of Taraz for a long peirod and then invaded Taraz (March 893). Under these circumstances, Ogulcak moved its centre to Kashgar and started the raids towards the regions under the dominion of Samani State. His nephew, Satuk had met the Samani prince called as Ebu Nasr who took shelter in Karahanlilar State or The Muslim mystic preachers and this acquaintance caused him to adopt the religion of Islam. When Satuk had won the struggle for enthronement against his uncle, he officially adopted the religion of Islam in his state (in the beginning of the century X). This event changed the situation of the western Karahanlilar State. Satuk Bugra changed his name with a Muslim name of Abdulkerim. In the course of his struggles against the Eastern Karahanlilar State, he got the benefit of the Muslim volunteers that were gathered around him for the holy war. Satuk died in 955-6 and was buried in Artuc in the north of Kasghar.

Satuk's son, Musa (Baytas) defeated the eastern khan, Arslan Han and carried off this branch of the dynasty and therefore, the entire Karahanli State had become Muslims (960). Afterwards, the provision of the diffusion of Islam among Turks turned into a characteristic of a holy war. In the period of Musa, they waged wars against the neighbouring regions. It is probable that his son, Ebu'l-Hasan Ali who replaced Musa had died as a martyr in one of these wars (998). Ebu Musa el-Hasan (Harun) b. Süleyman who governed the western section of the state invaded Isfican in the year of 990 and then, penetrated into Bokhara that was the capital city of Samani State (May-June 992). Bugra Khan got sick and had to leave this city. Oguz people under the command of Arslan b. Seljuk who came to support the Samani State had probably had an influence on his withdrawal from this city.

Harun died on the road while he was returning to Kasghar. Ahmet, the successor of Ali who was the great khan that died in 998 was the first person who recognised the Abbasi caliph among the Karahanlilar rulers. In his period, his brother named as Ebu'l-Hasan Nasr b. Ali that dominated the western section was in relation with the Samani State and its neighbours. Nasr captured Bokhara in the year of 999 and took the members of Samani dynasty to Ozkent. Then, the Samani crown prince named as Ismail el-Muntasir that had fled from Ozkent tried to reinvigorate the state but his attempts had fallen short and he died thereof (1000-1005). According to the agreement concluded between Nasr b. Ali and Gazneli Sultan Mahmud (998-1030), the River Oxus (Ceyhun) was determined as the borders between the two states (1001).

However, Nasr wanted to come to the inheritance of Samani State and to capture Khorasan. As a matter of fact, he got the benefit of the occupation of Sultan Gazneli Mahmut in India and sent forces to Khorasan in two branches. These forces were defeated by Mahmut and his brother, Nasr. Under these circumstances, Nasr had to demand help from the central-khan, Yusuf b. Harun (Kadir Khan). Sultan Mahmut defeated the allied Karahanli forces in the war that was carried out in the savanna of Belh (5th January 1008). This defeat caused some conflicts in the dynasty and between Karahanli people. Nasr b. Ali tried to declare his independency. Upon this, the Great Khan, Ahmed b. Ali made an alliance with Sultan Mahmut against him. As a result, the two rivals applied for the arbitration of Mahmud. Nasr b. Ali died in 1012-13 and his third brother, Mansur replaced him.

While Ahmet b. Ali suffered from a fatal disease, his brother, Mansur had probably declared himself as the great khan. His brother, Mohammed had recognised the domination of Mansur. Ahmet set on motion against these two brothers of him. Yusuf (Kadir Khan) and Ali Tegin were on his side. Mansur must have taken Ali Tegin as prisoner in this period. Karahanlilar State had provided arbitration between the Memnuni State that governed Harezm and Gazneliler State, but then, they had to acept the capture of Harezm by Mahmut (1017). On the other hand, the great khan Ahmet got on his feet although he was very ill and defeated the nomadic Turks composed of over one hundred thousands of tents that had approached to a distance of eight days to Balasagun. Then, he followed them towards Turfan for a period of three months. He died after his return from this expedition in a short while (1017-18).

Pursuant to the death of Ahmet b. Ali, there were two candidates that wanted to replace him. One of these candidates, Yusuf Kadir Khan demanded help from Gazneli Sultan Mahmut, but he was disappointed. As a result, he made an agreement with his rival Ebu'l-Muzaffer Mansur b. Ali. These two Karahanli rulers organised a joint military expedition to Khorasan, but they were defeated by Sultan Mahmut within the environs of Belh (1019/1020). Yusuf had to make an agreement with Sultan Mahmut again.
On the other hand, Arslan Ilig Muhammed b. Ali had seized a powerful statuesque in the state. Ahmed b. El-Hasan who opposed to his position captured Ozkent and Ahsikas (1019-20). Meanwhile, Ali Tegin who ran away from Mansur b. Ali captured Bokhara upon the support of Arslan b. Seljuk and he started to establish dominion in this city (1020-21). Mansur b. Ali who was a Muslim mystic resigned from the position khanate and he became a dervish (1024-25). He was replaced by his brother, Yusuf Kadir Khan. Mohammed b. Ali must have died in the same period. The two brothers made an alliance against the domination of Yusuf. Of these brothers, Ahmed declared himself as the great khan and Ali Tegin helped and supported him. Yusuf had to come to terms with Gazneli Mahmud again. These two rulers that met within the environs of Samarkand had negotiated about the issues that were related with the Karahanlilar State and decided upon some resolutions for the transfer of Arslan b. Seljuk and the Oguz people in his command to Khorasan. Furthermore, it was resolved that a relationship could be established between the two dynasties (1025).

Sultan Mahmud seized Arslan b. Seljuk through a trick and he arrested him in the castle of Kalincar located in India. Ali Tegin ran away to the steppe land, but when Mahmut returned to his country, he became the ruler of Bokhara and Samarkand again. Sultan Mahmut established dominion over the old Samani lands. He made an agreement with them upon the issue that the relations of Karahanlilar State with the Abbasi caliph would be realised through his mediation. Yusuf Kadir Khan and his sons recovered their situation and they were able to capture firstly Ozkent (1025-26) and then the capital city of Balasagun (1026-27). Ahmed b. el-Hasan had to recognise the dominion of Yusuf.
Yusuf Kadir had not properly received the diplomatic corps that was sent by Gazneli Sultan Mahmut in order to inform his enthronement and to establish amicable relations between the two dynasties in the spring of 1031. However, pursuant to the death of Yusuf Kadir (December 1032-January 1033), his sons, Arslan Han Suleyman and Bugra Han Mohammed replaced him and the diplomatic corps sent by SultanMesut succeeded in the conclusion of an agreement. Then, the Gazneli princess Zeynep was married to Bugra Han Mohammed from the Karahanlilar State. The conflicts that aroused in relation with this marriage were settled down by a diplomatic corps sent to the region by Mesut and the two brothers came to an agreement again.

Ali Tegin and the Division of Karahanli State

Gazneli Sultan Mesut had demanded help from Ali Tegin before his enthronement and he promised Huttal in return to his help. However, Mesut did not keep his words after his enthronement in Gazneli State. Moreover, he captured the region of Transoxania from Ali Tegin and decided to assign Bugra Han Mahmut b. Yusuf to this region. He sent a force in the command of Harezmshah Altuntas against Ali Tegin. Altuntas fought against Ali Tegin in Debusiye and he was able to make a suitable agreement although he was severely injured (1032). On the other hand, Harun who was the successor of Altuntas collaborated with Ali Tegin against Sultan Mesut (1034).

Pursuant to the death of Ali Tegin in the same year, Yusuf replaced him. Yusuf collaborated with Harezmshah Harun and beleaguered Tirmiz, but the death of Harun as a result of an assassination led him to retreat (1034). Meanwhile, he offended his ally, the Seljuks. Afterwards, Yusuf applied to Sultan Mesut in otder t make an agreement. He gave up from Huttal and wanted from Mesut to provide mediation to reconcile with Arslan Han Suleyman b. Yusuf. Furthermore, the relationship was resettled between these two dynasties through marriages. The outcome of Mohammed and Bori Tegin Ibrahim who were two sons of Nasr b. Ali posed a threat for the situation of Yusuf.

Muhammed b. Nasr was able to settle in Ozkent in 428/1036-37. Upon the raids of Bori Tegin Ibrahim towards the cities of Vahs and Huttal, Sultan Mesut sent forces against him, however, these forces returned empty-handed from this expedition (1038-1039). Ibrahim got the support of Turkmen people and captured Kish, Sogd and Bokhara that were under the dominion of Ali Tegin-sons. Ali Tegin-sons took shelter in the side of Yusuf Kadir Khan's sons. Mohammed took the title of great khan and got separated from Yusuf Kadir Khan together with his brother Ibrahim. Therefore, two Karahanli States emerged as the east and west states since the years of nearly 1041-1042.

The Western Khanate included the regions of Transoxania and Hocend and the western Ferghana. The capital city of the great khan was Ozkent in the beginning and then Samarkand. There were the cities of Talas, Isficab, Sash, Ferghana, Yedi-su and Kasghar within the boundaries of the Eastern Khanate. The capital city of this khanate was Balasagun. The religious and cultural centre of the Eastern Khanate was Kasghar.

Eastern Karahanli State

The first great khan of this state was Seref ed-Devle Ebu-Suca Suleyman b. Yusuf. The dynasty members pertaining to this state convened an assembly in the year of 1043-44 and determined their activity fields. These people captured some of the Ferghana region and Ozkent. A Turkish tribe composed of ten thousands of tents that lived between the cities of Bulgar and Balasagun adopted the religion of Islam in September-October 1043. Suleyman was a fair ruler and he had given the proper permission for Non-Muslims to live within this city in safety and security, but he was in conflict with his brother, Mohammed. Mohammed arrested him, and then declared his great khanate. But after fifteen months, he had to leave his place to his elder son, Huseyin (1057-58).



On the other hand, the second wife of Mohammed carried off several members of her family including his husband, Huseyin for the enthronement of his son, Ibrahim. Therefore, Ibrahim ascended the trone. Meanwhile, I. Ibrahim b. Nasr who was the great khan of the Western Karahanlilar State captured Ferghana. Ibrahim who was the ruler of the Eastern Karahanlilar State was killed by another member of his family and Mahmut b. Yusuf replaced him a the great khan. Mahmut collaborated with the central-khan, el-Hasan b. Suleyman and they jointly set on motion in order to take back the lands that were captured by the Western Karahanlilar State. As a result, an agreement was concluded between the two parties providing that the Syr-Darya (Seyhun) River was the border between the two states and Ferghana would be left to Eastern Karahanlilar State. Mahmut's son, Omer replaced him, but his sultanate could only last for two months. Bugra Han el-Hasan b. Suleyman captured him and became the great khan (1075). The Karahanli army that was composed of forty thousands of Muslim warriors won a great victory against 700.000 Non-Muslims. This victory must have taken place in the period of these last two rulers.

When the Seljuk Sultan, Melikshah advanced towards Ozkent, el-Hasan (or Harun) had to recognise his domination. After a while, Hasan's brother, Yakup was enthroned in Samarkand. Hasan suppressed this rebellion, but he did not surrender his brother to Sultan Melikshah. When Melikshah captured again the city of Ozkent, Hasan declared his subjection and sent Yakub to him together with his son (1090). Meanwhile, Tugrul b. Yinal captured el-Hasan. Under these circumstances, Melikshah collaborated with Yakub againsr Tugrul. El-Hasan must have got rid of Tugrul after this date. His successor and son, Ahmed defeated the Kara-Hitay people in a distance of several days from the city of Kasghar in the year of 1128 and he blocked their advance towards the west.

Ahmed's son, Ibrahim II who replaced him had demanded help from Kara-Hitay people in order to resist against his enemies. Kara-Hitay people captured Balasagun and entitled Ibrahim with the title of "Ilig-i Turkmen". The capital city of the Eastern Karahanlilar State became the city of Kasghar. Kara-hitay people sent Ibrahim over the Karluk people who rebelled in the region (1158) and he must have been killed as a martyr in one of these wars. His son, Mohammed II and his grandchild Ebu'l-Muzaffer Yusuf (February-March 1205) were his two successors that born the title of Arslan Khan. While Ebu'l Feth Mohammed b. Yusuf, the last representative of the Eastern Karahanli State who was taken as a prisoner by the Kara-Hitay people was returning to Kasghar, he was killed as a result of a rebellion that burst out before the arrival into the city (1210-11).

Western Karahanli State

When Karahanli State was divided into two states, I. Mohammed b. Nasr who was the first great khan of the Western Karahanli State settled in Ozkent and probably died in the years of 1052-53. His brother, Ebu Ishak I. Ibrahim was his successor and he did not go to Ozkent and stayed in Samarkand. Therefore, Samarkand became the capital city of the Western Karahanli State. Ibrahim had governed his state as an ideal ruler. He captured the border cities such as Sash, Ilag, etc. and some parts of Ferghana from the Eastern Karahanli State. In return, the Seljuk Sultan Alp Arslan (1064-1072) had started his raids towards the fields of Karahanli State.

Ibrahim complained about this situation t the Abbasi Caliph, but could not receive any result. His son, Sems'üu-Mülk I. Nasr (1068-1080) replaced him. Another member of the dynasty rebelled against him. The Eastern Karahanli State that got the benefit of this turmoil tried to take back the lands that were captured by Ibrahim. As a result, an agreement was concluded. The expedition of Sultan Alp Arslan towards the Transoxania could not be finalised due to his death (1072). Nasr got the benefit of his death and captured Tirmiz (December 1072) and advanced towards Belh and destroyed this city. Seljuk Sultan Melikshah set in motion in order to retort the attacks of Karahanli State. When he captured Tirmiz, he advanced towards Samarkand. When Nasr understood that he could not resist, he applied for the state of peace through the mediation of Nizam'ül Mülk who was the vizier of Seljuks. Sultan Melikshah forgave him, and a relationship was established between the two dynasties. Nasr's brother, Ebu Suca el-Hizr was his successor (1080).

Afterwards, el Hizr was replaced by his son, Ahmet (1081-89). The scholars of Muslim theology who were in conflict with Ahmet demanded help from the Sultan Melikshah. Melikshah captured Samarkand and took Ahmet Han as prisoner to Isfehan together with him (1088-89). However, Melikshah had to organise another military expedition towards the Transoxania as a result of the rebellion against the Seljuk domination (1090). In the return from this expedition, Melikshah extradited Ahmet to his country. Therefore, Karahanli State was connected and subjected to Seljuk State. Ahmet who came to power again was blamed as atheist by the scholars of Muslim theology and executed pursuant to an open hearing (1095). He was replaced by I. Mesud b. Mohammed. There is not any kind of information about his sultanate period.
Afterwards, the Seljuk Sultan Berkyaruk appointed three rulers successively for the throne of the Western Karahanli State.

The third one, Cibrail b. Omer (Harun) got the benefit of the Interregnum conditions among Seljuks and wanted to capture Khorasan. But, meanwhile, Sencer who was the governor of Khorasan had won the war for Tirmiz and Kadir Han Cibrail who had been taken as prisoner was executed (22nd May 1102). Pursuant to this victory that he won, Sencer reorganised the region of Transoxania. He enthroned his nephew, Arslan Han II. Mohammed b. Suleyman (1102-1129) who was titled as great khan in Samarkand. There has been Sencer's name engraved in the coins minted by Arslan Han Mohammed. Furthermore, Sencer assigned his aunt's husband, Abdulaziz b. Maza as the ruler of Bokhara Hanafi people with the title of "el-Sadr". Therefore, Sencer had wanted to prevent the struggles and conflicts between the Karahanli dynasty and the scholars of Muslim theology.

II. Muhammet could suppress the rebellions of the dynasty members named as Omer Han and el-Hasan b. Ali in the course of his sultanate. Hasan b. Ali was defeated in Nahseb in 1109. Mohammed had also attacked to Turks who had not adopted the religion of Islam. As a result of a rebellion, Seljuk Sultan demanded help from Sencer, but sent a message to him not to come since the rebellion was suppressed. Sencer got angry upon this and this situation led to another conflict. Sencer captured Samarkand and took Mohammed as prisoner. Mohammed died in Merv in the year of 1132. His son, Ahmed II resisted against Sencer for a period.

Sencer appointed three successive rulers for the enthronement of the Western Karahanli State. The last one, II. Mahmud b. Mohammed (1132-41) was defeated in the war against Kara-Hitay people near Hicent and he ran away to Samarkand (1137). Then, there was a conflict that aroused between him and Karluk people. While he wanted help from Sultan Sencer, Karluklar applied to Kara-Hitay people. Sencer and Mahmud were defeated by Kara-Hitay people in the desert of Katvan on the date of 9th September. Then, Mahnud's brother, Ibrahim III became the khan under the protection of Kara-Hitay people. Ibrahim was killed in the course of Kallabaz War against Karluk people (1156).
Mahmud II dominated in Kkorasan for a while. Furthermore, Oguz people had offered him the post of ruler pursuant to the death of Sultan Sencer (1157). Mahmud had firstly sent his son, Mohammed, but after a while, he became the ruler of Oguz people. Mueyyed ed-Devle Ay-Aba, the governor of Nisabur who was one of the commanders of Sencer desired to capture Khorasan. He was involved in a struggle to this effect and he took Mahmud and his son, Mohammed as prisoners in the course of these fights and burnt their eyes out (August 1162). The father and the son died in the prison in the following year. Pursuant to their deaths, the Western section of the Karahanli State came to an end.

Afterwards, the domination pertained to the Ali Tegin family and Ali b. Hasan was the successor of Ibrahim II. Ali had had successful fights with Karluk people and he killed their chief, Yabgu Khan. He encountered the allies under the command of Harezmshah Il-Arslan (1156-1172) that were on the side of Karluk people within the environs of Bokhara in the year of 1158, but he made an agreement without waging war. Then, Ali's brother, Ebu'l Muzaffer Mesut II replaced him (1161). Mesut II resolved the conflicts and turmoils in the country, and fought with Karluk and Oguz people. Pursuant to his death in 1178, we have observed that Ibrahim IV. b. el-Huseyin was the ruler of the Western Karahanli State, and he was replaced by his son, Osman I (1204). Osman was a good and cautious ruler. In the beginning, he was subject to Kara-Hitay people, but he had prevented the annihilation of Muslim Gurlu people by then and he was the mediator for peace. Kara-Hitay ruler, Gur Han did not permit Osman to get married with his daughter. Upon this rejection, Osman had delivered prayers in the name of Harezmshah Mohammed and minted coins in his name and became subject to him.

Then, Kara-Hitay people defeated the Harezmshah (1207). But Osman was pardoned, and he even married to the daughter of Gur Han (1210). The subjection of Osman to Kara-Hitay people did not last for long and he collaborated with the Harezmshah Mohammed. This time, he was married with his daughter and stayed in Harezm for a year due to the traditions. When Osman returned to Samarkand, he got separated from Harezmshahs and approached to the side of Kara-Hitay people. The reason for this approach was the ill treatment of Harezm people to the people of Samarkand in his absentia. When he annihilated Harezm people, Mohammed set in motion. He captured Samarkand and then, took Osman as prisoner. As a result of the instigation of his wife from Harezm that was insulted, Osman was executed (1212). Upon his execution, the Western Karahanli State came to an end.

Ferghana Khanate

Pursuant to the Kara-Hitay invasion (1141), an independent Karahanli State was established in the region of Ferghana with the capital city of Ozkent. The rulers of this city had born the title of Tugruk Kara Khan. We have observed that these people have used the term of Turk in their titles. This branch of Karahanli people must have ended in the year of 1211.


Culture and Art

In the period of the Karahanli State, there were widespread cultural and scientific activities among the Turks. The regions of domination of this state were located within the ancient cultural areas. The Western Karahanli State was under the effect of Iran-Islam culture while the eastern Karahanli State was under the effect of the Chinese and Uighur cultures. Despite these effects, the Islam culture developed in the period of Karahanli State. Particularly, in the regions under the dominion of the Eastern Karahanli people, a Karahanli era was opened pertaining to the Turkish culture, Turkish had become a literary language and the Turkish-Islam literature was established for the first time. This literature was written with the Uighur and Arabic alphabets. On the other hand, Karahanli people had communicated with the Gazneli and the other state sultans in Turkish written in Uighur letters. The officials who arranged these communications were called as "Alımga" in Turkish.

The city of Kasghar developed as a cultural and religious centre in the period of the Eastern Karahanli State. Various Turkish works of art must have been written in this period. The principal work pertaining to that period is "Kutadgu Blig" written by Yusuf Has Hacib in the year of 1069-1070). This masterpiece is the most ancient monument of the Islam era that was written in Turkish language with the Uighur and Arabic letters and it deals with the ideal state administration system.

Another scholar of this period, Ebu'l-Füuth Abdulgafir b. El-Hüseyin el-Almai, (died in 1096) had written a work titled as "Tarih-i Kaşgar" (History of Kasghar) that could not survive until nowadays.

On the other hand, the work of Mahmuf el-Kasgari titled as "Divan-i Lügat it-Turk" was written in Baghdad in the years of 1073-1077. Despite these years, it must have been an output of this cultural environment. Kasgarli Mahmud who was probably the grandson of Mohammed b. Yusuf Kadir Han that was the great khan of the Eastern Karahanli State had displayed some examples from the dialects of various Turkish tribes ranging from the Byzantine borders towards the borders of China. In his book, he had provided valuable information about the geography of Turkish cities, the political and economical life of Turks and their beliefs. Furthermore, he had also given some examples of literary works and the ancient pics and the folk literature that could not survive until nowadays.

Public Works and Improvements

In the period of Karahanli States, there were various glorious palaces, mosques, Muslim theological schools, bridges, and caravan inns built in the region in respect of the public improvements. The mosques had firstly been made of sun-dried bricks and then, sun-dried bricks and bricks. Finally, they were made of only bricks. Great activities related with the public works had been started in Bokhara in the period of II Mohammed b. Suleyman (1102-1130).



Today, only the minarets of the mosques built in this period have survived. As a matter of fact, the greatest innovation that the Karahanli people presented in the field of architecture was these memorial minarets. Similarly, there were some developments in the architecture of mausoleums. Apart from the decoration motives, the doors that had been made with memorial dimensions are of great significance as a magnificent work of art. The caravan inns that were built in the period of Karahanli States had effected the following periods significantly.

Karahanli States had struggled against the Buddhist Uighurs and the other Non-Muslim elements in order to preserve and diffuse the religion of Islam. Furthermore, they had adopted the elements of Islam to their traditions and they were the representatives of a Turkish-Islam culture and civilisation.

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